A Critical Analysis Of Deterrence Theory Philosophy Essay

A Critical Analysis Of Deterrence Theory Philosophy Essay This paper will analyze literature related to theories of nuclear deterrence and will seek to examine (1) historical application, (2) scientific and logical validity, and (3) the relevance of deterrence theories for international relations. I hypothesize that while deterrence theory has been widely used and relied upon, particularly in the context of relationships between modern nuclear powers, there are serious scientific and logical concerns as to the true validity of deterrence theories. These include problems with (1) circular logic; (2) bias; (3) difficulty in isolating the independent variables; (4) validation and falsification; and (5) misapplication or misinterpretation in scenarios where disparity exists between levels of risk aversion among actors. HISTORICAL APPLICATION OF DETERRANCE THEORY In his chapter entitled The Anatomy of Deterrence, Bernard Brodie reflects on the romantic notion that peace can be achieved through a negotiated peace as a result of military action on the part of strong and decisive leaders. (Brodie, 266). However, he makes the argument that in an environment where nuclear weapons of mass destruction exist, such military actions could (and most likely would) lead to a level of military conflict that would prove cataclysmic to human civilization as we know it. Therefore, a different understanding and explanation of international relations is called for. In his writings, Brodie advocates the strategies of deterrence and limited war which would, in theory, lead to levels of power parity between nuclear parties on the international stage. Therefore, an emphasis is placed on creating a scenario whereby any actor with the technology, ability, and will to launch a first-strike offensive attack on another nuclear nation would be met with the sure and certain fact that the other nation would, without restraint, launch a full-scale second-strike attack, leading to the destruction of both nations and, most likely, a large portion of human civilization as we know it. The premise of deterrence theory, then, is similar to that of a grand-scale game of chicken whereby each party desires to convince the other that they will not back down from a straight-on attack and are willing to destroy the other party and themselves in the process. Building upon the realist and neo-realist assumptions of unitary state actors, rationality and/or bounded rationality, and the idea that balances in power lead to a lower probability of conflict, this theory calls for the one for one buildup of nuclear arms with any nation capable of launching a first-strike attack, in order to openly demonstrate a nations willingness and capability to launch a second-strike retaliatory action against any first-strike attack. While this theory would appear, on its face, to be a natural extension of neo-realism and its theories, it would also appear to differ in some of its logic. For instance, in this case, a nation is hedging its future on the belief that it can convince the other nuclear power(s) that it is willing to guarantee not only vast losses but also utter defeat (Brodie, 276) at its own expense, if necessary. So, unlike traditional neo-realism, the idea of deterrence doesnt simply rely on the underlying assumption that nations seek to maximize power, but also assumes that nations seek to defend themselves through a tit for tat approach to the buildup of power and capability that they actually hope never to use. ASSESSING THE VALIDITY OF THE DETERRENCE THEORY A major criticism of traditional deterrence theory must be that it seeks to openly convince another nation that it will do something it clearly would not rationally choose to do, that is destroy itself in order to counter an offensive attack from the other side. The logic in this theory becomes almost circular in its approach. A nation is assumed to build-up power in order to defend itself from another nation that is building up power in order to defend itself from the first nations buildup of power à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and on it will go. So, it would appear through the logic of deterrence that there is actually an incentive to buildup power on both sides in a way that actually leads to their possible demise. This is best explained by way of the security dilemma which would say that as each side seeks to build-up its nuclear capabilities in response to the other, both sides actually increase the probability that a conflict will occur. When viewing the buildup of nuclear capabilities, this should be seen from the outside observer as an irrational act, yet each side, seeking to maximize its power and military capability, sees the buildup as a rational act. However, one must question not only the logic of this theory but also the entire premise that a theory such as this can attempt to explain a non-event. In other words, this theory really depends upon events not occurring in order to demonstrate its reliability. If something must not occur in order for a theory to be reliable, how can that theory be tested or falsified? As Jervis (P. 293) observes, explaining basic changes in the relationship between states is beyond the boundaries of the theory à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ thus diminishing its validity. In other words, we only can see something that didnt happen empirically, but we really dont know what might have happened if the scenario had been different; and, as we discussed in last weeks lecture, there most likely would be no one around to report the results of an actual event or falsified observation which would lead us to empirically say that the theory is invalid. Therefore, we must rely on assumption and generalization to say that deterr ence is the true reason that a nuclear confrontation between superpowers never occurred. In addition to examining the circular logic of deterrence theory, one must also consider the presence of intervening variables, which might spuriously impact the outcome of a diplomatic or international event. For instance, in the obvious example of the Cuban Missile Crisis, was it deterrence that led the Soviets to back down from their decision to implement strategic missiles in Cuba or was it a combination of diplomatic channels, internal domestic differences between decision makers, military strategic decisions, or just pure luck? One could argue that any one of these variables may have been the deciding factor in the end result of the conflict. In other words, we dont know exactly what effect deterrence had on the outcome because it would be difficult, if not impossible, to control for it and/or falsify the outcome. Another observation, made by Jervis (P. 297) is that deterrence theory is biased in favor of status-quo powers. In other words, the status-quo powers may have the desire and/or ability to coerce others to behave in a manner that favors the status quo power. Jervis and others argue that the game of chicken is not an appropriate explanation of nuclear deterrence in that it assumes that both cars are in motion at the start. However, if we assume that one car got a head start on the other, the other car is more apt to make a strategic mistake that can lead to devastating results. If the two powers are not equally risk averse, and if the power that is not satisfied with the status-quo is the party that is less risk averse, a higher probability of nuclear exchange would be the result. This scenario would critically harm the validity of deterrence theory. And, as was stated earlier, if the probability exists that deterrence theory is, in any way, possibly invalid, it would be illogical and possibly disastrous to depend upon it when making decisions in the international arena. The discussions contained within this paper lead to an even more important criticism. What exactly is rational behavior? It would appear, as in the criticism of circular logic, that the rational decision made by a unitary actor desiring to maximize power would most likely be seen from the outside as an irrational decision, as it has a high probability of harming the very nation that is attempting to preserve itself. Therefore, a serious criticism of traditional deterrence theory, as outlined by Jerves (P. 299), is that a well stated and objectively measured operational definition of rational behavior does not exist within the literature. Is it rational to make a decision that would lead to the demise of ones own civilization? Or is it more rational to assume that if a first strike is launched against a nation, and the nations destruction is inevitable, then actions that will lead to the destruction of the other civilization are the logical choice? In this case, rationality is relative to perceived risk and to the risk-aversive behavior of both parties. However, if either partys level of risk aversion is below some unpredictable point, the assumption of rationality becomes invalid, as would the entire theory. In defense of Jervis work in addressing long-term stability under the deterrence model, Kugler and Zagare (1990) attempt to extend the traditional model by combining it with the model of power transitions, and make the observation that parity between nuclear parties is not stable, but rather is a critical point where conflict and/or nuclear exchange can occur. Again, since no specific exchange of nuclear weapons has taken place under these circumstances to date, this theory is far from verified and is definitely not in a position that can be defended through experimentation or falsification. Therefore, one must criticize their work as broad-based assumptions made by applying the work of other authors within the field. However, it would seem logical, and somewhat practical to believe that there is some glimmer of truth in the arguments made within Kuglar and Zagares paper. Therefore, while their work is not at a position that could be called scientifically progressive under the standa rds established by Lakatos, it can also be said that their theories are not degenerative to the previous models as they do not alter the hard-core assumptions of unitary actors and rational decision making. Therefore, my criticism of this work is far less negative than my criticism of the traditional model of deterrence outlined by Brodie. An additional observation is that Kuglar and Zagares work adds to the second wave models described by Jerves in that it examines the phenomenon of risk aversive actors and uses game theory to further determine the possible probabilistic outcomes of confrontational scenarios. But, as with the other explanations, we must depend upon the probability of predicting a non-event (long-term stability measured by the absence of a nuclear exchange) versus a catastrophic event (nuclear exchange). Either way the model is un-testable and unverifiable. It is more of an explanation than a true scientific model or theory. Thus, we are relying on assumptions and generalizations. In the works of Signorino and Tarar (2006) and Zagre (1990), we again see the application of game theory as a way of empirically explaining and/or predicting the possible outcomes of nuclear buildups by examining risk and uncertainty on the part of defenders and attackers. Again, we can see that if the attacker is the party that is less risk-averse, the probability of war should, theoretically, increase, thus explaining that there is really no such thing as long-term stability when evaluating nuclear deterrence. While the application of probit analysis to the model does add an elegant mathematical presentation, it is still not a progressive model that can be verified experimentally or falsified scientifically, as the results of such experimentation would more than likely prove disastrous to the entire world. Therefore, the criticism of these models remains that they cannot be empirically analyzed in a way that would satisfy the requirements of even the loosest constraints placed by t he Lakatosian system of evaluation. While Signorino and Tarar (p. 592) claim that their model explains 96% of the attackers actions and over 93% of outcomes using an analysis of the POLITY III data set from 1800-1994, the problem still remains that they are trying to empirically predict a nuclear exchange using non-nuclear conflicts and therefore are not addressing some very important elements. For instance, they are not really analyzing the willingness of either party to truly use nuclear weapons in a first or second-strike position. And, given that the United States is the only nation to ever definitively make the decision to use a nuclear weapon in a conflict, we must also critically examine their application of democratic peace theory to the analysis of deterrence theory. Thus, even the most contemporary of the papers reviewed for this analysis do not truly bring us to a model of deterrence that can effectively be used to explain or predict the actions of nuclear parties. One additional criticism which must be cons idered is that none of the literature assigned for this class addresses non-state actors. Given our post 9-11 war on terror, it is vital that we examine our current geopolitical environment in future research. CONCLUSIONS A review of literature assigned for our study of deterrence theory and a critical analysis of their findings leads me to believe that, while deterrence theory has a logical basis for explanation, it lacks a level of scientific validity which would allow us to depend entirely on its hypotheses and hard core assumptions. Therefore, reliance upon this theory as the sole explanation for the behavior of nuclear states and for the buildup of nuclear weapons in response to the actions of other states is not scientifically supported. Other methods such as negotiation, arms limitations, treaties, and efforts to promote sustainable economic growth among nations are also required for any nation that wishes to contribute to long-term stability in the modern nuclear age.

Movie Review-Sydney White Essay

â€Å"Sydney White† is a story about a tomboy named Sydney White, who was raised up by her foreman father and a group of construction workers since her mother died nine years ago. In this movie, Sydney White is set to be a freshman in a college. She is a happy go lucky girl. When it was the age for Sydney heading to the college, she decided to enroll and joined her late mom’s alma mater sorority which her mom proud and cherished much. She believed that by doing so, she will get closer to her mom and have the chance to experience the life which her mom went through before. As a legacy, Sydney was successfully chosen to be one of the Kappas in the college. On the first day, Sydney met Dinky, a nice, cute kappa legacy as her roommate. While both of them were on the searching to Kappa sorority house, Sydney’s naive, sincere and her candour had stole Tyler Prince’s attention, which is the president of Beta sorority house. He is a good-looking and smart man. He was then kind enough to offer himself to be the guide for both of them to the Kappa sorority house. Sydney had a great chat with him and this was seen by Rachel Witchburn, the princess president of the Kappa sorority house. Rachel is a pretty and confident girl, and is very conscious on her appearance and fame in the college. Sydney who had been in the limelight since the very first day had boosted her jealousy and as a result, Sydney had some confrontation with her. This is followed by kicking out Sydney from Kappa sorority house by giving the excuses that Sydney did not fulfill the condition to be a kappa. Sydney ended up living in the Vortex, a soon-to-be demolished house and also the home to seven great geeks or dorks in the college. However, Sydney had never give up for what she had received. In fact, she found some kindred spirit with the seven dorks. Her altruism made her felt that they, the resident of the Vortex have the same right as the Kappas and Betas in the college, she then rallied the seven dorks, asked them to stand up and voice out their rights by joining the student council. With the determination and cooperation from the seven geeks, plus some helps and supports from Tyler and schoolmates, in the end, Sydney was successfully been elected to be the new president of student council in the college. The movie â€Å"Sydney White† is an idea taken from the story â€Å"Snow White and the seven dwarfs†. Sydney White is the new and modern version of Snow White. I personally like the plot of the story. It is great and well arranged. Despite the good messages, determination, tolerance and the success of the hard work, the story also put in some problems that might be faced by the people especially students nowadays. For example, discrimination to the geeks, bullying, lack of confident in handling problems and confrontation. The story taught the people how to face and handle the problems and obstacles in our life. As we know that, life is not always smooth and easy, people need to learn how to handle it. Sydney White’s determination in facing the problems and confrontation between her and Rachel had been a good example and indication that we must not easily give up something in our life. Overall, it was a nice movie and I enjoyed watching it very much.

J.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye - 595 Words

Responsibility is considered to be a natural addition to life as people grow older. Holden Caulfield struggles to accept his responsibility in his life throughout the novel The Catcher in the Rye. During the course of the novel, Holden experiences the sudden pressure of responsibility caused by his actions. As his counter attack to the unwanted situations he faces, Holden does what most people would do and rejects the direction his life is now headed. Holden Caulfield shows his revulsion to accept responsibility through his self-proclaimed adulthood, confusion of independence, and being blinded by his own emotions. Holden does not realize his misconstrued state in life. He believes he is an adult; however he is clearly a young man who has lost his way in life. He has every confidence that the world works in the way he imagines and even says: â€Å"It’s funny. All you have to do is say something nobody understands and they’ll do practically anything you want (Salinger 8 4).† Holden displays a sense of arrogance in the way that he envisions that he is better than the rest of the world. Holden believes he is an adult who knows how to handle himself, but he must constantly rely on the guidance of his little sister Phoebe for direction in his life (Svogun n.p.). Holden is just a boy who portrays himself as more than he is, but soon realizes that what he believes himself to be is in fact not genuine. In modern times, numerous teenagers are eager to be adults. They glorify the idea ofShow MoreRelated J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye1435 Words   |  6 Pagesadolescent protagonist hero of J.D. 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Adolescent Relationships And Peer Adolescent Relationship

Specific Purpose: The purpose is to examine parent-adolescent relationships and peer-adolescent relationships to determine the effects it gives an adolescent in their behavior. The results gathered will bring about factors and ways the adolescents get along with their parents and peers. The findings can indicate what it is that changes their behavior. More information about the adolescent’s life styles at home and outside of home can lead to more ways in which adolescents change their behavior more aggressive. INTRODUCTION I. Parents play a big role in an adolescents life, adolescents are taught from their parents, their given rules, permission, discipline, and support. II. Family structure and parenting styles effect on adolescents behavior III. 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At different ages, the ways we socialize with different people various in different situations base on the social experiences that we have gained in the past. The word â€Å"friends† refers to people who have a mutual and close relationship with each others, the definition of â€Å"peer group† is an individual’s small relative group that consists of individuals who share the

Analysis Of Gwen Harwood s Poetry - 1944 Words

Gwen Harwood, a contemporary female poet, born in Brisbane Australia in the 1920 s, wrote her poetry during a time where Australian society held dominant gender ideologies that focused on domesticating women. A widely held belief of a passive, nurturing mother figure who looked after her children and complied with her duties as a house-wife , whilst men were viewed as the sole source of income and had a minimal nurturing role with children, was shared, along with ideas of male superiority, and of masculine qualities being superior to feminine qualities, both of which were only expected to be embodied by males and females respectively. The construction of people, places and institutions through poetic conventions in Harwood s poetry allows the audience to identify these cultural beliefs in conventional gender roles and expectations within 1950 s Australian society in particular. These constructions critique the attitudes and values of the time, especially where women are concerned, a nd thus position the audience to reject the patriarchal assumptions of the time. Her poems Suburban Sonnet and Prize Giving are can be perceived as radical interpretations and criticisms of the views of the time they were written in, and attest to Harwood s own beliefs of female independence and placing value on feminine and masculine roles and qualities equally. Harwood grew up with the main female figures in her life being her mother and grandmother, who were both very independent; herShow MoreRelatedGwen Harwood1749 Words   |  7 Pagesreligion and language, Gwen had many early influences in her childhood that were clearly going to have an effect on her later life. Gwens family had strong connections with music and it became a very important part of her life, causing her to aspire to become a musician. Gwens grandmother introduced her to poetry and she began to write her own in the 1950s. Soon after, she learnt the German language to establish a wider reading of poetry and invo lve the language in her own works. Gwen married a linguistRead MoreShould Female Contruction Workers Earn the Same Wages as Male2427 Words   |  10 Pagesvulnerability as the first and last instances of any explanation of rape is to make the identity of rapist and raped pre-exist rape itself (Wadlby). The point to consider is that Freuds account incest Until very recently around early part of 1970s, the sexual assault of children within their families was rarely openly discussed until the emergence of the second wave of feminism. Incest ... of sexuality may have normalized heterosexuality and the positions it offers for its subjects but it did

Genetically Engineered Potato Free Essays

NAME:  SHIZA ALI CLASS:  BS III TOPIC:  GENETICALLY MODIFIED POTATOESGENETI CALLY ENGINEERED POTATO A genetically designed potato could be a potato that has had its genes changed, exploitation recombinant DNA technology. Objectives of modification contain presenting pest-fighting, amendment the number of some chemicals fashioned by the plant, and to avoid staining of the potatoes. Multiplicities changed to reap a good variety of starches could also be accepted for industrial usage merely, not for diet. We will write a custom essay sample on Genetically Engineered Potato or any similar topic only for you Order Now THE PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING:  Genetic engineering is wide employed in scientific research. Mouse models ar designed for medical specialty studies, bacterium are designed to supply medications like internal secretion, and crops are designed for agriculture. All of those product of gene-splicing were created exploitation identical basic steps: 1. Distinguishing an attribute of interest. 2. Uninflected that genetic attribute. 3. Inserting that attribute into the order of a desired organism. 4. Growing the designed organism. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) has quite recently given the thumbs up for ranchers to begin industrially growing a few distinctive hereditarily changed potatoes. The potatoes, which come in Russet Burbank, Ranger Russet, and Atlantic Varieties, have been built to create less of a fixing that can transform into a growth causing operator when seared. The potatoes additionally oppose wounding, a typical event in gathering and transport which can lessen their esteem or considerably render them unsellable.The new assortments, which have been named â€Å"natural† potatoes, were created by Idaho based biotech organization JR Simplot. The potatoes are joining another age of GM substances that are intended to profit both the ranchers and the shoppers, instead of simply the cultivators as herbicide or pesticide-safe assortments would. A few GM apple assortments, for example, were as of late made which take more time to dark colored when cut, in spite of the fact that these â€Å"Cold apples† presently can’t seem to get the endorsement.To achieve the upgraded attribute, Simplot analyst added charming characteristics to the tubers that are ordinarily found in other created and wild potatoes. The characteristics encode a system that results in deceased age of amino destructive (the building square of proteins) called Asparagine. Regardless of the way that Asparagine is found in various foods, it’s conveyed in high obsessions in a couple of groupings of potatoes. Exactly when warmed to high temperatures, for example in the midst of singing or warming, it can shape a manufactured called Acrylamide f the right sugar particles are accessible. French fries and potato chips have been found to contain particularly a lot of acrylamide when differentiated and diverse sustenance. Lab examinations found that the inborn potatoes delivered between 50 to 70% less Acrylamide when fricasseed than non-designed assortments, however by and large the levels of different supplements were unaffected. In spite of the fact that it’s realized that acrylamide is a poisonous concoction, the advantages of these potatoes to shoppers are murky at this stage.Since the Innate assortments were made by including qualities from different potatoes, instead of various creatures, Simplot is cheerful that shoppers will be all the more inviting of the yields. In any case, sensibly it’s impossible that this will influence hostile to GMO supporters, and some have just whined that the innovation has not been enough controlled and hence endorsement ought not to have been conceded this early. One gathering has additionally squeezed McDonald’s to not utilize the potatoes, regardless of the way that Simplot has been a noteworthy provider of solidified French fries to the cha in since the 1960s. How to cite Genetically Engineered Potato, Papers

Robots in Society and the End of Manual Labor for Humans

Question: Discuss about theRobots in Society and the End of Manual Labor for Humans. Answer: One of these fine days, the world is going to experience one of the greatest unemployment crisis in the history of humankind. The crisis being right or bad will depend entirely on how the world had prepared for it. Technology is advancing at a faster rate that machine intelligence is capable of performing all manual labor tasks. Ingelhart (2015) argues that the world is on the brink of technological based societal transformation. Furthermore, the change is likely to be bigger than that witnessed during the industrial revolution. The revolution is not just the machine driven technology for manual labor but man inventions that think at the level of human beings and beyond. Furthermore, automated systems will take nearly half of the manufacturing jobs in the next generation (Frey Osborne, 2017). On the same note, the second wave of transformation is yet to be fully realized, it is, however, estimated that the full breakthrough would be achieved in the 2040s and 2050s. Technology and its effects on the manual laborer's workforce are not a new phenomenon. Furthermore, it is not an impediment to those people who are eager to work. For instance, the invention of internal combustion engines may have rendered many carriage assembly workers jobless, but it created many jobs in the advertising, manufacturing, and auto mobile maintenance industries. A report by the Deloitte consultancy firm estimates that through automation, though the economy of Australia has benefited, 800,000 have been lost since 2001. Furthermore, the report indicates that it is likely that more than 11 million manual jobs are likely to be lost within the next decade through automation of tasks performed by the manual workers (Rossel, 2015). The manual labor markets have never witnessed such a massive change in the workforce. The potential consequences are clearly being witnessed by the decreasing number of employed manual laborers. Moreover, the continuous application of robotic machines to replace the human workforce is an urgent issue facing many nations. However, many governments have failed to address the issue. Many nations have been unable to set up cabinet committees to come up with solutions or even look at the impact these robots have had on the economy and the ethical dilemmas they potentially have on the masses. In addition to that, many nations have failed to come up with a clear way of sharing revenues generated through the use of robots (Dom Hanson, 2015,pp621-46). The traditionally intellectual jobs are not also safe anymore. Machines such as Watson system by the International Business Machine that was famous for the win in jeopardy is likely to take over jobs involving large data (Carayannis, 2010). Doctor and lawyer jobs are in danger of being fully automated through the use of robots due to the ability of robots to integrate and consume more information than human beings. Similarly, traditionally intelligent jobs will be the first to go in this technological transformation. Moreover, we should appreciate the nature of machines. Technology has brought with it machines with creativity, robots able to compose music and write stories. The invention of machinery focused on the replacement of dull routine tasks with automated interfaces. Computers, for instance, was capable of executing complex mathematical calculations seamlessly, computations which previously was performed by a large number of people. Furthermore, the strides achieved in the 20th century, however, is far much advanced than those of the last fifteen years (MacCroy et al.2014). With the cheap computing power, big data analytics tasks have been fully automated while complex decision making is left to a few chosen professionals. Throughout human history, technological advancements continued to ignite frustration due to the potential of unemployment and job displacement. Back in the history of human beings, nearly 90 percent of people worked on their farms, in the 21st century, only about 2 percent of the worlds population works on their farms. During this ancient periods, unemployment was unheard. The current trend of polarizing the labor market has led to the shrinking of middle-wage occupations while low wage jobs increase. Furthermore, many individuals who end up losing their jobs to robotic systems, easily accept low paid wages because it is easier than retraining to pursue a position demanding high-level skills (Dauth, 2014). On the other hand, many argue that government involvement in the formulation of policies can help shape the industry. In a hypothetical scenario, two cases are true. Robots and automated machines produce all that is necessary for the survival of the human race, and human beings wont find work and continue to lose their daily source of income because all work is left to the robots and machines (Bakkari, Rachidi Khatory, 2015). This is the society of today. The result is that a small fraction of the population which was wealthy before automation took place continue to live comfortably while enjoying the benefits of the machine economy. The majority of the population which is poor continue to starve. According to Heyer (2010), robotic systems have come with some advantages. For instance, efficiency in the manual work sector has been enhanced. Advancements from the steam engine to the Internet have improved our lives, have created new business opportunities and driven growth in the economy of many nations. Many automated systems are capable of multitasking. Case in point is a robot welding, riveting, bonding and installing various parts of equipment. Hypothetically, it may turn out that advancements in automation of work processes may end up augmenting human labor instead of replacing human workforce. Furthermore, technological advancements may never exceed the mental capacity of human beings (Lin, Abney Bekey, 2011). However, the acceleration of automated systems is continuing to widen the gap between the economic winners and losers. Many possibilities may play out in the future but the trend being witnessed is going to have a profound effect in the next century, and the world should, therefore, prepare well for what will transpire. Cheap machines will do jobs and tasks belonging to the manual laborers, and the wages of unskilled workers will continue to decrease. In summary, a new category of unemployed and unskilled labor commonly referred to as digital losers are emerging in the 21st century. The board of contention continues to be that automated systems and robots coupled with digital technologies are continuing to be blamed for the lack of jobs. In addition to that, many people who are studying with hopes of being employed in the future are now worried. Moreover, new robots are encroaching into the skills of humans beings in an unprecedented way. Many middle-class jobs are at the center of it all. High skilled jobs in the education and engineering sectors are not being spared either. No economic law exists to state that anyone automatically benefits from a technological advancement. The economic elite in the society understands some workers are likely to lose out in the battle against the machine. It is imperative that the governments of affected countries step in to avert the looming crisis. A government through the formulation of polici es and levies can help salvage the situation. The adoption of a machine is not disputed, but it should not be at the expense of the manual labor workforce, this is because a machine will never be more intelligent than the human brain. Furthermore, failure to deal with the crisis will continue to widen the gap between the upper class and the lower class in our society. Economic gains may be achieved through automated systems but the world risk having a population which is idle. The dangers associated with having a population which is learned or unskilled in the case of manual workers who lack jobs is like having a ticking time bomb waiting to erupt. References Bakkari, M., Rachidi, A. and Khatory, A., 2015, December. Evolution of automated production systems in SMEs: what are the consequences for the employees? Carayannis, E.G., 2010. Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge Management. Dauth, W., 2014.Job polarization on local labor markets(No. 18/2014). Iab discussion paper. Dorn, D. and Hanson, G.H., 2015. Untangling trade and technology: Evidence from local labor markets.Economic Journal,125(584), pp.621-46. Frey, C.B. and Osborne, M.A., 2017. The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerization?Technological Forecasting and Social Change,114, pp.254-280. Heyer, C., 2010, October. Human-robot interaction and future industrial robotics applications. InIntelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), 2010RSJ International Conference on(pp. 4749-4754). Inglehart, R., 2015.The silent revolution: Changing values and political styles among Western publics. Princeton University Press. Lin, P., Abney, K. and Bekey, G., 2011. Robot ethics: Mapping the issues for a mechanized world.Artificial Intelligence,175(5-6), pp.942-949. MacCrory, F., Westerman, G., Alhammadi, Y. and Brynjolfsson, E., 2014. Racing with and against the machine: changes in occupational skill composition in an era of rapid technological advance. Rssel, P., 2015. The changing interaction between robots and humans in the working environment.